Pavlo Mykhed
PROPHETISM IN LITERATURE - THE CASE OF GOGOL
I have chosen this theme for several reasons. First, this aspect of the discussion about Gogol enables us to present a new version of his life as a writer and as an individual, and to take a new look at his creative evolution. Second, the history of Gogol's apostolic project in its conceptual entirety explains much in the messianic exodus of Ukrainians to Russia where over more than two centuries they endeavored to strengthen the citadel of Orthodox Christianity. Gogol was the very last commissioner of the last representatives of the cohort of the Christian empire's great ideologists. Third, Gogol's fate demonstrates that in the middle of the 19th century religious experience and search were still vital and active, even if they existed within the space of his artistic imagination. The phenomenon of Gogol's great efforts for reconciliation of religious faith and literary fiction and hence to bring about substantial alterations both in contemporary literary and social processes still remains unexplained. The last point I have to formulate as a question. Can Gogol's constant longing for prophecy somehow be explained by the Ukrainian cultural background that almost simultaneously gave birth to another great prophet - Taras Shevchenko? Both of them were conscious of their prophetic missions but understood their essentials in a different way. Generally speaking, Shevchenko devoted himself to the national-Christian idea; Gogol, on the other hand, confined himself within Orthodox Christianity endowed with a "common-Russian" aspect, which for him was a substitute for the idea of nation. The difference is that in his prophetic intentions Shevchenko remained within the bounds of art, unlike Gogol who, unsatisfied with such confinement, worked out an original scenario of his appearance to the world in the image of an apostle. The idea and realization of this scenario constitutes the core of my article.
In recent time scholars have willingly called Gogol "a prophet", "a preacher" and even a "Russian Christ" (V.Papernyi, O.Kovalchuk). [1]. As a rule these terms are used metaphorically as the scholars try to avoid concreteness or direct analogues. That's why V.Voropaiev's vision of Gogol. [2] as a person who throughout his life dreamed of becoming a monk and in the end almost realized this desire, seems to be quite persuasive. It appears convincing because, in Voropaiev's view, Gogol remains within his human scale and his longing to be a monk is understandable, though the question why Gogol didn't do it is still waiting for an answer.
The apostolic framework has a different ring. Any discussion of this theme provokes a kind of embarrassment and certain conventionality is always present in such discourse. That is why from the very beginning I want to claim that Gogol's apostleship isn't a metaphor for me, it is as real as his longing to be a monk. Consequently this demands a different system of analysis. One can't approach an apostle who was chosen by Christ as an ordinary person. Hence Gogol's life and oeuvre presuppose a particular point of observation.
I have to add one more remark before further discussion. I do not mean to sensationalize Gogol's apostleship. The
Reverend Sergii Bulgakov pointed out that "each Christian has by his words and deeds to adhere to God, to preach in this way and as a result to prophesy. There are different ways and images of preaching, and endowments also differ". He emphasized, "all Christians are involved in calling and serving to prophesy and as a consequence all of them, marked by the Spirit, form the Lord's people, all have a prophetic calling. This is demonstrated by the "equal to apostleship" status which undoubtedly means service like an apostle." [3].
It is noteworthy that Gogol conveyed his religious-ecclesiastical ideas in his specific artistic surroundings. Danilevskii recollected Gogol's words: "Listen to Pletniev. The new generation neither likes nor respects him. But do not forget: he was blessed by our first-ranked apostle Pushkin". This jocular phrase hides a very serious for Gogol understanding of the writer's mission as a sort of prophecy.
Our reason to think so is prompted by Gogol himself, who said in his "farewell story", "The Author's Confession": "If it was not for the testament, which I placed rather carelessly and which I intended as an instruction that each writer has to preach with his poetic creations, nobody would think of my apostleship. They would miss my resolute phrases and lyrical solemnity of my style".
This confession contains significant information as it formulates not only the very idea of apostleship but its artistic derivatives which are inherent to
Selected Passages from Correspondence with Friends. Gogol's "apostolic calling" and longing for prophecy didn't emerge unexpectedly in the late 1840s, as some scholars have claimed. Also it was not in the least the result of his disease or sickliness. We have grounds to affirm that Gogol was aware of his being chosen from the very moment of his self-consciousness, and during his life he was only strengthened in the idea of his exceptional destiny. His prophetic profile can be traced throughout his life and in the late 1840s it gained discernible features.
Gogol came into the world under extraordinary circumstances. Family legend has it that Heavenly Powers were involved in his birth. Gogol, when a child, was told about that. Gogol's biographers willingly inform the audience of the episode when the Virgin Mary appeared to Vasyl Opanasovich, Gogol's future father, during his visit to a church in Akhtyrka. Gogol's mother, Maria Ivanivna, narrated the legend in her letter to S.Aksakov: "He was standing in the church. All of a sudden the Holy Gates opened and there appeared the tsarina with a crown on her head. She talked to him but he could not recollect all of her words. At last she said: "You'll be sick, you'll suffer many diseases but recover, marry and here is your wife". She raised her arm and he saw a child near her feet and he could never forget its face". The dream passed, and many years later the family went for a litany of gratitude to Jaresky. There, in the church, Vasyl Opanasovich saw a lady with a seven-month baby in her arms. The baby's face was exactly the one he had been shown by the Virgin Mary. He told nobody about this, but afterwards he became a frequent guest in the house and played willingly with the child to everybody's surprise. Before the 14th birthday of this child Vasyl Opanasovich saw "the same dream in the same church but this time the main gates didn't open. Instead the altar side gates opened and a maiden appeared. She was a wonderful beauty, wore a white dress and had a brilliant crown on her head. She pointed to the left and said: "Here is your bride!" He turned and saw a girl dressed in white who was busy at a small working table and had the same familiar features". After this Vasyl Opanasovich asked Maria Ivanivna to marry him. As she noted in one of her letters:"My spouse loved me beyond measure; I was really happy. He was 13 years older than me".
That was not the end of meaningful and amazing events. The first two babies were stillborn and Maria Ivanivna vowed to name her next son in honor of the miracle-working icon of Mykola Dikanskii. The anticipated miracle happened. The future writer was born and, as his sister Olga noted, "later happily recounted the reasons of being named Mykola" [4]. When Mykola was nine his younger brother Ivan died. Gogol's religious consciousness, deeply influenced by the Ukrainian medieval rural background, led him to a sacral conclusion: God had chosen him, God had blessed him and God had saved him for a special mission.
I presume that Shevchenko was very close to Gogol in such feelings but the reasons differed. Shevchenko was an incredibly talented person. He was undoubtedly a genius as a poet, but likewise he was a first rate painter and knew that. We often forget that he was also an excellent singer. M.Maksimovich valued his singing as even more worthy than his poetry and painting. P.Kulish was a witness of an emotional and aesthetic shock experienced by the audience during Shevchenko's singing. The consciousness of the 19th century considered such abundance of talents concentrated within one person as an emphasized mark of God. Shevchenko, likely to Gogol, was aware of it but contrary to him, tried to be ironic in his self-esteem though we can find a notable phrase in his "Diary" of July 12, 1857, which refers to CKarol Libelt's
Aesthetics. Shevchenko didn't take it seriously but on that particular day he wrote: "Well, I like this writing at the moment. Libelt is right when he reiterates a commonplace that religion, within old and new nations, always supplied the source and energy for the fine arts. It is true, though the next assertion is not so absolute. He considers that in the fine arts a human creator is superior to nature. I assume that this freethinking artist is confined within surrounding nature as nature itself is restricted by eternal invariable laws. Let this freethinking creator neglect the eternal beauty, nature, even for an inch and he turns into an apostate, a heretic, a moral monster". Shevchenko's natural attachment may also be understood as a facet motivated by "eternal invariable laws".
Well, let us return to our theme. Already long ago it was noted [5] that during his studies in Nizhyn Gogol expressed his idea of being chosen and his letters of the period attest to this.
It is a cliché repeated by many contemporaries that Gogol was a secretive person. His schoolmates after reading Walter Scott's novel called him a "mysterious dwarf". Gogol confessed: "Distrustful, reserved, I did not reveal my secret reflections, and I did nothing to disclose the depths of my soul. I did not open my heart to any of my peers though there were many of real worth among them" [X, 112].
It seems that it was in the summer of 1825 that Gogol for the first time clearly formulated his idea of being chosen: "As for me, I'll try to make my way in this world. Probably it will differ from that predestined for other people but I'll attempt to do my best to cope with it" [X, 60]. His letters convey the sense of his specific relations with God: "The Lord held me back" [X, 53], or "Apply to Him as I have applied to Almighty" [X, 53]. In one of his letters Gogol reveals a strange and remarkable longing: "I wish to become a soothsayer" [X, 82].
The last months of Gogol's study in Nizhyn are remarkable for his reflections over his future, his fortune and his calling. Even in the letters addressed to his mother Gogol tries to look at himself from a distance and as a result draws an image of a person who has undergone sufferings but gained wisdom. This person, as Gogol leads us to believe, is endowed with Christian meekness and obedience and is ready to accomplish his great purpose. His mother ought to share this idea: "I have suffered more miseries and misfortunes than you know about. When I was near you I deliberately pretended to seem an absent- minded and capricious person so that you could take me for an inexperienced one. Do you know that there are not so many people in the world who bear injustices, ingratitude, foolish and ridiculous rebukes, and cold contempt as I do? I sustain all this with no reproach or reprimand, nobody hears any complaints from me, and even more I always praise those who are the cause of my sorrows". Thus Gogol depicts himself as an ideal Christian. Somewhat later he develops this theme: 'Well, I have to say that I am perceived here as an enigma; nobody can understand me. You take me for a self-willed person who is confident that he is wiser than others, that he has been created in a different way. Can you believe that inwardly I am laughing at myself with you? Here they call me the model of meekness and patience. In one situation I am the quietest, most polite and modest among human beings, in another I am thoughtful, somber and ill bred; in the third - I am boastful and bothering. So, I am clever for some and a fool for others. Exclusively from my real purpose you'll know my genuine character" [X, 123]. In fact Gogol was not in the least "the model of patience". His schoolmates attest to it. Even more, he was the object of constant mockery. Liubich-Romanovich recollected that "Gogol was always isolated… and his school life was an actual torment for him". Perhaps this can be explained by the repeated mention of Gogol's untidiness: he "always did what he wanted" and "deliberately neglected to have a haircut". But we can suggest another explanation: was not this misbehavior a manifestation of a carefully scripted and acted role of a feeble-minded miserable holy fool whose patience was protected by Heaven? Therefore Gogol conceived the world as an ordeal he had to endure: "I know people too well. That is why I am not a dreamer. They taught me a lot, I'll never forget their lessons and they guarantee my happiness. You'll see that I shall pay with sympathy for all their evil deeds as their wickedness turned to be good for me. This is an incontrovertible truth that everyone who has felt the pressure of misfortune is to be the happiest" [X, 123]. Gogol comes to a disillusioned statement: "A human being is strange in his inner wishes. He sees something in the far distance and this dream never abandons him. It troubles him and urges him to pull all stops for its achievement" [X, 93].
Certainly the dream always accompanied Gogol. It was the basis of his self-confidence in all life situations. Scholars eagerly quote another passage from Gogol's letter to his uncle Petro Kosiarovskii: "Disquieting thoughts that I would not be able to fulfill my highest goals threw me into deep despondency. Am I to perish in dust?" [X, 112]. In this letter Gogol speaks of jurisprudence as a possible field of his future state service but it is rather a euphemism. S. Scalon recalls Gogol's farewell the moment he left Vasylivka for St. Petersburg:" He astonished me saying: "Farewell, Sophia Vasylivna! I assure you that you'll hear either nothing or something really good about me". His overconfidence was truly surprising as we didn't observe anything remarkable in him at that time." [6].
Gogol went to Petersburg with an desire, understandable for a young dandy, to conquer the capital, and he also had the confidence of a person who is destined to be known by his deeds as Almighty favored him. In another letter, addressed to his uncle, Gogol wrote: "…and I am even more thankful to the Lord for my persistence and patience that I not had earlier; now I never postpone anything which I started until I see it through the end" [X, 133].
In 1828 Gogol came to St. Petersburg as many other young men did. He wanted to attract attention with his very first efforts but the publication of a long poem "Hans Kukhelgarten" was a failure. During the next 3-5 years he made efforts to establish himself in such different spheres as the theatre, scientific research, lecturing, state service and what not. Literature was one of many interests. It was not the main object of his efforts. This provides evidence that Gogol became a writer so to say accidentally; simply because he was acknowledged in this field. Although it was not as simple as it seems at the first glance. Gogol believed that his talent was God's gift. Hence in his view to be faithful to the talent is to be true to the Lord.
Limits of my essay do not allow me to detail all the episodes of Gogol's intricate spiritual story. I shall highlight only the most significant points.
Preparing to go abroad in 1836 Gogol left this bitter farewell to his Russian compatriots: "No one is considered a prophet in his own motherland" [XI, 41]. He traveled through Europe and finally settled in Rome. For him Rome was not just a place of residence. Abraham Tertz noted aptly in this context: "Gogol was in the Eternal City which was meant for spiritual feats and which was the centre of the world…There a man was conceived in the prospect of the place which was designed for him by the Creator." [7]. Rome was a place remarkable for the deeds of the apostles. It was a symbol of triumphant Christianity. It was also the sacred centre of Gogol's world where he started on his own deeds. Gogol wrote numerous hymns praising the Eternal City: "Oh, Rome! I wanted to say that nothing but Rome was happiness and joy, but Rome was even greater than happiness and joy." He expressed emotions, which overwhelmed him: "When I saw Rome for the second time it seemed to me even better! I dreamed that it was the homeland I was thinking of. Oh no, it was not that; it was not my homeland but the homeland of my soul that I came across. This is the place where my soul lived before I came to the world…" Every visit to Rome gave Gogol a new impulse of strength and confidence. He was as inquisitive as a child: "What impressed me greatly is St. Paul's Cathedral. It has grown tremendously since the last time I saw it. The cupolas are enormous now".
From that sacred place, from Rome Gogol envisioned the features of a renewed Christian world.
During his first years abroad Gogol was an adherent of the Orthodox idea. The Polish episode in his biography was not just an accident. It was also not a fleeting passage in his ideological debates as some scholars contend. M.Bogoiavlenska is correct when she observes: "Temporarily the artist could dominate the thinker, but the process of Gogol's religious search never ceased. This explains his interest in the riches of the surrounding world. Gogol's scrutiny and longing for self-instruction may help us understand his interest in Catholicism." [8]. Gogol shared with the Poles the idea of a Christian renovation achieved through patience and introducing a Christ into all spheres of life. Gogol believed in the resurrection based on the Gospel. Love in Christ - this idea united Gogol with Mickiewicz, the Jesuit
Kisiewicz and also with Semenko and Janskii, who were members of the Resurrection Congregation. The name of this order emphasizes its main idea, which included the ceremony of repentance near Jesus' Tomb. A. Kochubinskii quotes an extract from Janskii's diary, which sounds very much like of Gogol: "For two years I have strained myself in order to create something useful for my compatriots. I feel a great need for an apostleship of truth. Miserable as I am, I wish to produce something really good despite the absence of good in me. O Lord, give me love and strength to clear my conscience, to ruin the evils of my spirit and to revive goodness! I am grateful for the thoughts You inspire. Now I know that love of men without the love of God is vanity and may lead to wickedness. Strengthen me with Your Love; destroy the flashes of arrogance and materiality in my soul!" [9].
Gogol had a keen interest in the plans and projects of Polish thinkers as he himself dreamed of Russia's spiritual resurrection. Gogol and the Poles were apostles of their peoples and their times; their religions differed but the projects had many in common.
The final phase of the practical realization of Gogol's apostolic project took place in 1840s and was connected with his
Dead Souls. Gogol created this "poema" as an analogue to Dante's Divine Comedy and the genre definition also echoes Dante. The first, as it is called, critical part of
Dead Souls was published in 1842. Two other parts, containing positive pathos, had to show the resurrection of dead souls, the total transformation of the poema's characters. S.Shevyriev, Gogol's close friend, was the first to point out this intention. P.Viazemskii after reading
Dead Souls acknowledged that he saw Gogol in a new light: "His scope and endeavors became broader. We can say that in
Dead Souls he went beyond traditional reasonable and legitimate bounds". In this context it is noteworthy to recall Gogol's torments when he began
Dead Souls: "What is it inside me saying such strange things? What a kind of a human being am I? Well, am I a human at all?" [YVI, 642].
In the period that followed Dead Souls Gogol sought "positive grounds" for his characters. The supremacy of ideas rather than of fiction or imagery bothered him." With the course of time fiction, literature, ceased to be his main preoccupation; Gogol's personal demands and interests became more visionary." [10].
I want to emphasize that from the very beginning of his work Gogol was aware that Christian dogmas would be basically for the transformed world of his poema. In his "Author's Confession" Gogol observes: "I always assumed that before introducing something new we have to study thoroughly the old heritage; otherwise there wouldn't be any constructive discovery in science. That was my purpose when I started to speak of the past". Gogol meditated over old / new ideas; he read masses of religious works ranging from Dmitro Tuptalo to Thomas
а Kempis. There is a grain of truth in Abraham Tertz's witty remark that "Gogol was not a great reader but he was the first of Russian thinkers who read the Gospel. This is his great historical merit".
Gogol was gradually approaching the kind of Christian-social doctrine, which took its ultimate shape in
Selected Passages. This work is both an original epistolary stylization and a collection of letters, articles and essays.
The work begins with the author's farewell to the reader. That was strikingly unusual but carrying great weight as Gogol wanted to reach some definite results. First of all he presented his plan that could help, as he thought, to resurrect Russia. Therefore his next purpose was to test his ideas and Gogol denoted his work as a unique trial stone. Hence he requested his readers to inform him of their opinions of
Selected Passages. The ideas of this work are similar to those expressed in
Dead Souls, though Selected Passages possesses
its own additional connotation and significance. Gogol's creative experiences urged him to make it artistically perfect and we can say that the very material of Gogol's work dictated its original nature.
The Christian context of Selected Passages actualized its dominating instructional character. Gogol knew that obvious preaching by a writer would arouse a negative reaction and would be rejected by the reader. Therefore he hid his preaching intentions behind the story of his life. That led to the next problem that Gogol had to solve: how to present a story of personal life and to gain the reader's respect, compassion and confidence? He found the best way out. He arranged his life story in the form of a confession, which had to guard him like a protective diploma. V.Gippius noted: "Selected Passages had a twofold purpose - of a sermon and of a confession." [11].
Gogol emphasized a special state of feeling and mind, which was necessary for creating God-inspired poetry. In 1844 he wrote in a letter to Iazykov about the project of
Selected Passages: "If in any possible way you manage to pour out onto paper the condition of your soul, its progress from sorrow to condolence will be a valuable gift to the world and humanity. The state of an anguished soul is sacred and everything which it pours out is precious, and poetry which it pours out is superior to all other poetries" [12.11.1844]. Desire to reinforce his sermonizing position stimulates Gogol to assert in
Selected Passages: "The time is coming when longing for confession grows". Gogol knew that confession was an inseparable part of Christian ceremony and therefore it preserved its sacred character in any context. The narrative's sacred nature in
Selected Passages turns to be one of the components of Gogol's apostolic project. Gogol testifies that this work appeared "as a result… of God's will" [XII, 186].
Sacredness of narration is supported by the situation of the pre-death word. The opening paragraph of
Selected Passages expresses this state with singular clarity: "I was seriously sick; death came close". But the mercy of Providence saved him: "Only God's Heavenly mercy pushed the hands of death away". Therefore at the very beginning of his work Gogol places "The Testament" and gives instructions for his burial: "I pronounce this here, in my testament as I have a hope that my posthumous voice would serve as a reminder of caution". Now he is positive that his word would be perceived correctly after his death: "Everyone will remember me after my death and then understand my words addressed to them in my letters written a year earlier".
Gogol's confession is remarkably instructive: "Let all of my compatriots remember that each dying person even if he is not a writer has the right to leave something as a fraternal message…" Gogol feels it essential to emphasize again: "A person who is laid on his deathbed can foresee some things better than those roaming all over the world". In this context we may suggest that Gogol wished to verify his own life to have assurance in its sacred nature: whether he was right or not about it. That was his high price for the right to be persuasive. This lesson of personal moral responsibility for the pronounced word was transmitted to later Russian literature and is of no less importance than Gogol's oeuvre.
Gogol's contemporaries were the first to be aware of that. Ivan Aksakov affirmed that "Gogol's inner biography" needs a special observation. The right to preach a sermon required an adequate legend of human's life in order to make the pronounced word authoritative. That is why "The Author's Confession" which was designed as a comment to
Dead Souls became a confession set to strengthen the idea of Gogol's being chosen.
Another component of Gogol's apostolic project deals with his appearance in A.Ivanov's picture "The Epiphany of the Messiah". Gogol is portrayed there in the image of "the closest to Christ". It is known that Gogol who posed as a model designed this character and its role in the picture. In the later variants of the picture Gogol's profile lost its close resemblance but nevertheless was still recognizable.
Gogol placed the chapter entitled "The Historic Painter Ivanov" in his Selected Passages. In it he tried, as we should say nowadays, to advertise Ivanov's picture. He emphasizes that this picture is "no ordinary phenomenon", "an impressive achievement which nobody had equaled before". And the main statement claimed that the painting was accomplished due to God's will: "I know this and this is also a part of my own experience. In a miraculous way my works are bound to my soul and my inner breeding". Gogol concludes that an artist is in the hand of the Lord, so, "leave him in peace, God will push him on…"
At the end of 1845 Emperor Nicholas I came to Rome. The event was perceived in accordance with eschatological visions of two Romes that gave added meaning to the royal visit. Nicholas I saw Ivanov's painting. Gogol knew about this and expected that the presentation of Ivanov's picture in Russia would be of great cultural and social significance. Gogol repeatedly says that it would be desirable to bring together the presentation of the painting and the publication of his works. In his letter to Ivanov Gogol notes: "…it is high time to show the world the results of quiet thoughts which were born from the depth of my soul and elevated contemplations. Oh, how nice it would be to demonstrate your painting and my work at the same time!" In this way Gogol marks his participation and his role in the event.
To arrive in Russia in the sacred image of "the closest to Christ" portrayed in the painting, which conveyed the pathos of prophetic Epiphany, was a clever device at mystification of his own personality. Though it was not the singular iconic image in Gogol's carefully directed project of his own Epiphany in a new apostolic role. One significant component was still lacking in his scenario - the feast of Transfiguration.
Gogol sought it intensely. Therefore he introduced one more episode regarding the portrait into his "Testament.". This is the story of his conflict with Pogodin and their deep misunderstanding. At first glance it is not noteworthy. Such, at least, was the attitude of Gogol's contemporaries. They failed to understand the reasons behind the scandal he aroused when M. Pogodin, the editor of
Moskvitianin magazine, in 1843 published Gogol's portrait painted by Ivanov. Gogol flew into a rage. He was so irritated that he recalled the episode years later and mentioned it reproachfully in his "Testament". His friends did not understand him. What was wrong? Aksakov, known as a level-headed person, blamed Gogol: "I can't trust my eyes that you even in your testament (I assume that you certainly wrote a testament and not fiction, though it is difficult to believe it now) when you say farewell to this world and it its sinful passions that you reprove and dishonor the person whom you had called your friend and who was your friend, in his manner." [12]. Aksakov's statement was not an exaggeration. As late as 1838 Gogol addressed Pogodin as "…my kind, my sweet, my generous! Why do I lack words to express my gratitude to you?" [XI, 118]. Despite his well-known delicacy Shevyriev wrote to Gogol that he had demonstrated "nastiness of spirit provoked by unmeasured selfishness" and demanded deletion of the passage in the next edition. Gogol remained firm: "I won't retract my attacks; instead I'll present something else which is to be taken into account when a person is under judgment" [XIII, 291]. Gogol proposed to add a new article entitled "On Judging Pogodin's Literary Works" but categorically refused to cancel a scandalous passage.
Pogodin was no less surprised: "I wanted to do a small favor for you and a big one for your admirers. I had no other intention and there could be no other. It is not a tradition to ask for permission in Russia". Pogodin absolutely had no doubt: "I did you no harm, trust me". Only some time afterwards Pogodin speculated: "Well, perhaps you had a special purpose or a plan as you normally do. I know of your habit "'to roll balls"' and meanwhile to think up some cunning things that will serve for good as you hope. Alas, my friend, God has a rest in a simple heart as Russian proverb says." [13]. Gogol in his turn suggested to Pogodin to forget everything and Pogodin accepted this as an apology: "There is no bitterness in my heart. I am calm and my anger is gone." [14].
Scholars propose various interpretations of this episode but it seems to me that nobody has attempted as yet to examine it in the context of the Transfiguration. It could be a convincing example of Gogol's skilful "rolling of balls".
The Transfiguration motif takes its start with Gogol's recollection of two painters. Gogol says that besides Ivanov's portrayal there is one other, painted by another painter though he does not name him. Instead Gogol praises him as "an artist who is at the moment in Rome making an engraving of Raphael's picture " Divine Transfiguration". He has sacrificed everything for his work which is killing and devouring his life and health" [VIII, 223]. This unnamed painter is the person whom Gogol would like to paint his own portrait and to sign it: " Engraved by Iordanov". This is followed by a striking conclusion: "It would be better and more justified if instead of my representation you buy Iordanov's engraving of the "Divine Transfiguration". Even foreigners consider it a masterpiece and glory of Russian art "[VIII, 223]. Some mythical foreigners seem to confirm Gogol's exaggerated appraisal. Ivanov was of a different opinion as to Iordanov's picture. He wrote to Gogol: "I am not sure that his important work will influence the world of engraving. His art is not a natural one, his character is not attuned to our time and his heart is not Russian." [15]. I suppose that Gogol shared Ivanov's point of view.
The fact is that he had his own purpose. It was very important for him to form a visual association by use of stereoscopic device. The effect was achieved by imposing Gogol's portrait by Ivanov and Iordanov's picture of the Transfiguration on one another. Thus the author formed an original sacral focus: God, the Transfiguration and Gogol himself. If we keep in mind Gogol's image of "the closest to Christ" from Ivanov's picture, we realize the sacred context of his own desired Epiphany.
And one more component of Gogol's apostolic project. He had to choose a particular time and place for his apostolic wandering. The place became certain in 1842 when Gogol got a blessing to undertake a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. From that time on the notion of pilgrimage became a constant theme in his correspondence. Gogol was confident that he "would carry the image of Christ from there to the whole world". Many of Gogol's friends knew about his plans. It seems that he attempted to create a certain idea and to implant it in their minds. His "Testament" repeatedly emphasizes the plot of his supposed pilgrimage; so now his words are not merely spoken in a pre-death situation but they are also pronounced on the eve of his pilgrimage to the Holy Land.
Gogol always connects his future pilgrimage to Jesus' Tomb with the Easter period: "…to Jerusalem during Easter…" [XIII, 47], "…during Lent and Easter in Jerusalem" [XIII, 101]. Or in another place: "If the Lord is benevolent I'll accomplish my work without which it is impossible for me to go to Jerusalem" [XIII, 195]. We should not forget that the last chapter of
Selected Passages is entitled "The Holy Easter". This principal feast of Orthodoxy is naturally connected with the mystical appearance of miracles. The miracle bears the idea of perfect harmony in the same way, as the feast is the true incarnation of divine life. What were Gogol's thoughts about the purpose of this feast? What is it for? "It is, - Gogol answers, - for those few who are able to hear the spring breathing of this feast and it will make them sad similarly to angels' sadness in the Heaven. And then they ought to scream heart-breakingly and fall to the feet of their brethren and beseech them to spend this one day in the year in a different way; not in the way of the 19th century but in the way of the Eternal Age. On this very day let them embrace each other as a guilty friend embraces a generous one who has forgiven him. Let him do it now, even if tomorrow he'll push him away and say that he is a stranger and an alien. If one could only wish to do so, if one could force oneself to act this way, to seize this day as a drowning man clings to a board! God knows whether this is sufficient to attain the Heavenly Ladder and the hand which helps to ascend it"
For Gogol the Holy Easter was the start of new life, the beginning of a newly transformed Russia where "the festival of Easter will be celebrated earlier than in other countries". It is remarkable how Gogol concludes this passage: "You can't imagine such thoughts; they are born simultaneously in the hearts of many people by the Lord's instruction".
Over the course of years Gogol's mystical gift was reinforced. Mystery is a very essential facet in the spiritual life of Orthodox Christianity and Gogol's road to the Transfiguration didn't seem unnatural in the 1840s. Here is how he describes the very moment of Transfiguration in his "Divine Liturgy": "If the Divine Liturgy influences effectively those who are present, the more effective is its influence on the preacher or its celebrant… You'll see the Savior in him and Christ will be present in his deeds; and Christ will pronounce his words… His words will acquire the healing power of holy oil and will remain as words of peace and love in any place". V. Losskii, an authoritative historian of religion, made a noteworthy observation on this aspect: "The Eastern church never drew a distinct borderline between mysticism and theology, between personal experience in the Divine sacraments and the dogmas approved by the Church". Losskii cites the words of Gogol's contemporary, the great Orthodox theologian Philaret Moskovskii who wrote: "It is necessary for us to experience each divine thought, even if it is a secret one, as our personal possession and to set our minds and hearts in the right way to be able to contemplate and perceive Heavenly sensations". Losskii remarks: "There are no Christian mystics without theology, and what is of more importance there is no theology without mystics".
According to the Holy Fathers, the ultimate purpose of Christian learning is unity with God or Godliness. That is why Losskii in the end comes to a paradoxical conclusion that "Christian theory possesses a highly practical significance: the more mystic the theory, the more directly it leads to God. Therefore it is more "practical." [16].
Now let us bring together all the components of Gogol's scenario of his appearance in a new apostolic image. We'll receive a rather concrete picture and at the same time an exaggerated one. I am doing it deliberately in order to clarify Gogol's project.
Thus, Ivanov completes his painting where Gogol is depicted as "the closest to Christ". The presentation in St.Petersburg turns into a grand event and attracts the entire social elite, including the emperor. The day before Gogol's books that include the
Selected Passages, his own portrayal and the engraving of the "Divine Transfiguration" are published. Everyone is supposed to talk about it. Both presentations were to take place during Easter Sunday. Gogol harbored a secret hope that nobody would miss his representation in Ivanov's picture and would ask why he was not present. His friends knew the answer: at that moment Gogol was in Jerusalem near Jesus' Tomb. Hence Gogol in reality would turn out to be "the closest to Christ" and his return to Russia will be that of an apostle who brings renewed faith and resurrection. Gogol wrote in his preface to
Selected Passages: "Near Jesus' Tomb I shall pray for all my compatriots, I shall not forget anyone; my pray will remain powerless and vain unless Divine Mercy turns it into a true praying".
Unexpectedly for Gogol things went wrong. The purpose behind his Selected Passages was misinterpreted and ridiculed; [17]; the presentation of Ivanov's painting was of no public effect or significance; Gogol's representations were perceived as ordinary images of a famous writer. Gogol decided that there was no sense to go to Jerusalem. He wrote a frank and sincere letter to Shevyriev: "I have to confess: now I am thinking; why shall I go to Jerusalem? Earlier I had some illusions as to myself. I thought of myself better than I was. I thought that I came closer to the aim of my visit to Jerusalem; I thought that my praying was of some meaning to God. Now I am sure that my visit may be an insult to Him. If the Lord wants me to come then I'll have the desire for a pilgrimage and I'll overcome all difficulties. But at the moment I am indifferent and scared of the obstacles" [XIII, 399].
In the end Gogol did go to Jerusalem but his impressions lacked the thrill he had expected. The pilgrimage lost its meaning and that could explain almost everything. Nevertheless Gogol did not give up; he continued to defend his creation,
Selected Passages, his Testament. He wrote "The Author's Confession" in order to explain every passage to contemporaries but with time he understood that they failed to see an apostle in him. This understanding left a bitter taste, as he was aware of the social impact that his contemporary and countryman Shevchenko was making at the same time. Gogol's friend Danilevskii recorded a conversation between Gogol and Bodianskii about Shevchenko and his role. One of the motifs they dwelt on dealt with the prophetic potentialities of the Russian language. Gogol remarked that "Pushkin's language should be the Bible for the Russians, Czechs, Ukrainians, Christians and Protestants…" Then Gogol turned to a familiar subject: "Poetry is the voice of a prophet. His verse has to heal our doubts, to elevate us in proclaiming the eternal truth of love and mercy. It is a trumpet of an immaculate archangel…" Such verbal formulae are not casual. Perhaps Gogol debated with his inner self on the nature of the personality of the true prophet. Gogol knew Shevchenko's poetry. Danilevskii asserted that "Gogol wrote his
Taras Bulba and "'The Old Landowners"' in Russian and at the same time was fascinated with the songs of "Kobzar" and "Haidamaky." [18]. The fellow-speakers knew Shevchenko's writings and his poetic and social status too well. In 1844 Bodyanskii acclaimed Shevchenko "the leader of us all." [19]. It was a sore spot for Gogol who was defeated in his striving to become the apostle of a new Christian Transfiguration. In comparison with Shevchenko his failure seemed to be even greater. So he had to prove to the world and to the people his truth by any means, at any expense. The price he had chosen for the right to be trusted was his life. Perhaps it was the major lesson and the main idea that resulted from Gogol's apostleship. Russian and Ukrainian writers inherited this very testament, which proclaimed the highest moral responsibility for the pronounced word, whether it be Alexander Block or Vasyl Stus.
Works Cited and Notes
© P. Mykhed
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TSQ 34
Toronto Slavic Annual 2003
Arkadii Shteinvberg. The second way
Roman Timenchik. Anna Akhmatova in 60s
Le Studio Franco-Russe
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